Cover Crops

Beginning Farmer and Ranchers Development Program
Kohala Center
NOTES from class on August 10, 2019 by Jim Crum
Presentations by Koon-hui and Amjad (for registered students):
– PAN Calculator

Prescription for Soil Health: Cover Crop Management
with Koon-hui Wang, PhD
CTAHR, Plant and Environmental Protection Services, University of Hawaii
https://cms.ctahr.hawaii.edu/wangkh/Research-and-Extension/Cover-Crops

“Insectary plants of Hawaii” $10/ or online

Basics of Soil Health Management: cover crops!
1. Cover the soil at all times
2. Grow a living root 24/7
3. Reduce soil disturbances: minimal tillage – narrow strip only 2′ wide
4. Synergism with diversity: Crop Rotation

Cover Crops
– benefits (High C/N ratio)
– Till it back in when it is rich and green, before it goes to seed and puts energy into growing the seeds

A. reduce fertilizer costs
– 30-60% of Nitrogen (if tilled in) can be available to subsequent crops
– Have and continue working on a cover crop calculator for Hawaii
– sun hemp, cowpea, lablab, yellow sweet clover, white clover, hairy vetch
– oil radish draws Ca and K up and leaches it to where next crops can get them and can grow down 5 feet
– can make Phosporus more available to plant for uptake
B. add organic matter and improve fertility
– helps infiltration and hording of water an nutrients
– Active Fraction: rich with sugar, proteins and microbial cells = release of most NPK from organic matter
– Stable fraction: rich in cellulose and lignins = real organic matter, dark content, water holding, cation exchange capacity
C. improve yields by enhancing health
– speed infiltration of surface water
– relieve compaction and improve structure
– beneficial microbial life
– enhancing nutrient cycling ensuring health soil long term
D. Pest suppression: weeds, nematodes, insects, and pathogens
– sudangrass and rye produce alleopathic compounds that provide natural herbicides
– smother and out-compete weeds for water and nutrients like buckwheat, yellow sweet
– Can reduce the need for herbicides by 25%
– clover, wollypod, vetch
– shading weeds like sun hemp
E. Prevent erosion
– up to 40% less if used before wind or rain
– no till oil radish is most efficient
F. conserve the soil moisture
G. protect water quality
– reduce nitrogen leeching

No till with roller-crimper: invented in 2003 for organic use
No till with Flail mower is a good combo

C:N ratios
Bacteria is 8:1 C:N ratio.
24:1 is ideal microbial diet
Target for composting: 30:1 to feed microbes but lease some in the soil
How to terminate cover crops: best time to terminate a legume is during the early to mid blooming stage
N release is more rapid when cover crops are plowed in

Cover Crop Chart for Hawaii: low temperature = high elevation

– Lallab, pigeonpea, sunnhemp (2-3 months then mow it in)
– stabilized organic matter (aka humus) is a sponge and can absorb 6 times its weight in water
– each pound of organic matter can hold 18-20 pounds of water

wet blade management of Guinea Grass (video)

Best Method: Mow/Till/Black Plastic (MTBP)
No-Til weed management by Joe DeFrank using flail mower, herbicide, no till drill, then weed mat to share out weeds and “Light Out” or “Turn-the-page” weed management

For compacted soils: Cover cops with Deep Roots: Sorghum-sudangrass, rapeseed, yellow sweet clover

Different cover crops for different needs:
– Dry out web soil: Rye grass
– Bring beneficial insects: buckwheat, white clover
– Reduce nematodes pests: sunnhemp, sudangrass, marigold
– add beneficial nematodes: sunnhemp

Have cover crops as your alley way, then switch the alley to the where the crops were the next year

Beneficial insects: just grow in one area and see the benefits throughout

*It can take 5 years to build soil from depleted to good soil *
BEST: Sun Hemp (30-60 pounds per acre) produces good nematodes but sometimes hard to find the good stuff locally. till stips for the plants, then cut back the other rows of sun hemp to a couple feet high and use the cuttings for mulch. It keeps white flys and solver leaf problems and pickle worms
*Buckwheat is a great one. can let it just die and timing is good compliment for things like zucchini. plant the buckwheat a month ahead of time, then till it, then plant it 2-3 weeks after seeding, then let the
maximum soil organic matter will be 5% can be tested at UH and private labs
You may need to burn the weeds to really get rid of them
a mix of 6-12 different types of cover crops is ideal because of the different benefits

Seed Rate Calibration: 10/160 method = 1 oz seeds applied on 272 ft2 = 10 pounds per acre. 272 sq ft is 1/160th of an acre.

Management of Soil Fertility and Crop Diversity
Amjad A. Ahmad, PhD
CTHAR, University of Hawaii at Manoa
alobady@hawaii.edu

Hanai’Ai Extension Bulletins Website
Sustainable and Organic Agriculture Program (SOAP)
Free Publications:
– “Tea Time in the Tropics” Compost Tea Manual
– “Agroforestry Landscapes for Pacific Island“
– Newsletter
Facebook and Twitter for workshops

Sustainable vs. Organic
Sustainable includes Organic
Triple bottom line: People, Planet, Profit = in balance

Organic vs. Certified Organic
Commercial farming requires certification
Synagro in Honolulu is taking human waste into the plant and processing it for weeks to break down to a chemical granulate

How much fertilizer and when? it depends upon
– crop requirements
– soil fertility status
– fertilizer characteristics
– crop peak uptake stages

Organic fertilizers usually have a much lower concentration so much more is needed. (Urea @ 46 vs. Blood Meal @ 10 for example). However the organic add additional nutrients that will not appear in the synthetic

Liquid fertilizer gives it immediately and readily available but may require an injection system (video)

Macronutrients (needed in big quantities): N/P/K/Ca/Mg/S
Micronutrients (in small quantities): Fe/CI/Zn/Mo/B/Cu/Mn
Mobile nutrients (first seen in older or lower leaves) N/P/K/Mg/Cl/Mo
Immobile (seen in younger or upper leaves): S/Ca/B/Cu/Fe/Mn/Ni/Zn

Soil and Plant tissue testing
– Soil: go below 4 inches, take from a few areas, and either send each individually or mix them together
– Tissue: University Laboratory ADSC at CTHAR or Private Lab

Rapid Testing: Minolta SPAD Meter for chlorophyll. Cardy meters
Hanna meter: pH/EC/Dissolved oxygen meter in solutions and great for hydroponic and Aquaponic

Soil food pyramid: Build it with compost (1/2) and compost (40% and organic and synthetic fertilizers at only about 10%

Soil Organic Matter requires good:Biological: Energy, Nutrients, Resilience
Physical: Stable, Water retention, Thermal properties
Chemical: Cation exchange, pH, binding to minerals

Biochar: corncob, manure, scrapped wood burned in the absence of or low oxygen> higher temp and more closed the condition the better the biochar. Any organic waste can be used for it. adds hundreds or thousands of time the surface area to make more area for nutrients to stay with the soil as it will take much longer to become saturated.Usually has a high pH so will help increase it where needed. Josiah Hunt making it from Mac Nuts but moved to California. Farmers now getting carbon credits. recommend 2% of soil weight It’s not fertilizer, but a conditioner. One application can last for a decade

Invasive algae: Ogo, Eucheuma, Kappaphycus. Important to wsa to address salt in them. dry them and kill them to ensure they dont spread. Available from volunteerst that harvest them in the ocean cleanup. or Maxicrop from the mainland

Keep a pH between 6 and 7.5
If to acid, then lime needs to be applied every three months but is only beneficial to the surface where applied

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Land Management

Beginning Farmer and Ranchers Development Program
Kohala Center
NOTES from class on July 27, 2019 by Jim Crum

Carolyn L Wong
State Grazing Land Management Specialist
NRCS Pacific Island Area
Raising goats since 2011
From Lahaina, Maui. UHHilo, masters in range science in Utah

Grass:- bunch or sod forming. – seeds of sprigs- cool or warm season- phases: seedling, vegetative, elongation, reproductive- made of tillers (branches), tillers have leaves and roots, tiller are reproductive or vegetative, tillers start from Need both for healthy field* vegetative tillers are more nutritious and less stemy
Need the whole plant to identify type of grass. 
Mertistem: area where cell division and expansion originates. Keep this area as health and active as possible. – Apical (most important) makes leaf formation. Telescope like. The leaf factory- Intercalary is at the base of the leaf blade
Not all grasses are good for grazing (California grass). Can switch from CA to Hilo grass in a year with proper grazing. *Animals go for whatever is tastiest first so don’t leave them too long in one place so they don’t destroy the apical meristem. 
Phases:- Vegetative: most digestive and nutritions, no sheath elongation, mostly leafy – Elongation and Transition: apical meristem changes from a vegetative to a floral bud. Elevates the apical meristem- reproductive: Just before it emerges it’s at the boot stage and after 
Legumes are very digestible and high in protein. Nitrogen fixing with symbiotic N-fixing bacteria. Vetch, white clover, kaimi clover, Leucaena. Established by seed or sprig. Most N is in leaves and stems. Recycled via animal waste.- not all are good for livestock and can cause bloat or have toxins: creeping indigo, crotalaria, coffee senna
Animals: don’t try things they don’t know. Mothers teach but peers teach too. They go with what’s familiar and have post ingestive feedback to tell them if it is good for them. Watch your animals and pay attention, and decide how much risk you are willing to take. 
Forage quality: Grass is not grass or all are not created equally- depends on the animal needs- what % water- digestibility: NDF and ADF- energy, proteins, secondary compounds 
2.6% of their body weight a day in food
Take a cow from the dry to the wet, it takes a while because the rumen needs to expand. Ok to take it from the wet to the dry. 
Forage quality:- average dry matter doubles from 4 weeks to 12 weeks- forage analysis gives neutral detergent fiber (everything including ADF) and Acid Detergent Fiber: lower is better because easier to digest. ex: signal grass is lower than star grass- analyze their poop: pumpkin pie poop is preferred – protein declines as plant ages- most protein comes from the ruminant microbes
Vigor:- right amount of moisture- soil composition and fertility- insect pressures: lead hoppea, aphids- grazing pressures: deer, goats, domestic- disease: rust, – root system, stored energy, leaves, stage of growth
Most of our grasses are perennials so no need to replant- seed: guinea, white clover, kaimi clover, leicaena, – vegatariceely: 
Grazing requires sufficient residual is left to

Cows:- dry cow: no longer producing milk- dairy cows have the highest nutritional needs, especially right after the baby is born – Baby cows: start grazing after a couple months. 
Animals have a preference for guinea grass
Guinea Grass: bunch grass with tillers out of the crown. Not easy to grade out because crown is so robust. More adapted to dry environment and deeper roots. Dig it out in the wet season. Consistent mowing or grazing it out (or mowing it constantly). Young grass desirable, but old not so much
Hilo Grass: happy where it’s wet but animals think it’s sour
Vervane:
California Grass: ok in wet climate
Signal Grass: animals like it
Custer’s curse: sucks don’t want it
Someone to come out and review things: NRCS waimea Jill 885-6602 x102
Livestock = risk. If they get out and people like to sue these days. 
Grazing Animals101-600 pounds initially then 1000 -finish before 30 months of age: prime (best), choice, select – average daily gain of 2 pounds a day is good- keep for 20 months or more for marbling- more smaller animals are more profitable than fewer larger
Anatomy and physiology – Mono gastric (horse, donkey, humans, rats) or RuminantDigestion (cows, goats, sheep, deer) have 4 chambered stomachs- ruminant microorganisms give them the ability to break down the lignin. They add a protein source- stomach #1 is the rumen, pushes it to the reticulum (tripe) honeycomb, moves it to the omasum where liquids are removed, then the abomasum 
Energy for foraging goes to- maintenance (basal metabolism)— respiration— blood flow— nervous system- production— protein (meat)— fiber (wool)— lactation (milk)
Energy needs- pregnancy (3rd trimester) and lactating (highest)- males- females- castrated males (lowest)
Thermoneutral zones help ensure they stay healthy- cattle:41-68degreesF- calves:50-68- sheep: 70-88- goats: 50-68
Body condition scores for cows (1-9) used for deciding on heath and breeding
Animal Unit- 1 AU: 1 mature cow (1000lb) + 1 calf. Or 5 sheep- 1 AUD: forage needed for 1 AU for 1 day- 1 AUN: forage needed for 1 AU for 1 month
Look at what forage can be produced and do the math on how many animals can be supported.  
Holistic resource management by Savory
*Take 1/2 and leave 1/2 is the basic principal to maintain pastures.
Ideally, use a paddock in a week, 5 paddocks then move cattle, and 4 weeks of rest. This works for most of Hawaii* 1 acre in Honokaa can support about 1 cow. Probably not worth it for. 2-3 acres per horse. * Pigs: use Korean natural farming of a pen with deep base. Pig nose rings are better for pasture pigs – check YouTube!* mow if you have stuff you don’t want, give it a rest, and encourage the things you want to * if you have wordy stuff, use a chainsaw and remedy to kill it
Grazing Management 101- the manipulation of livestock grazing to accomplish he desired result. Controlling the grazing habits of animals on pasture 
Consider
A. how many and what kind of animals, performance goals
B. Pasture composition, yield, quality, health 
Factors- seasonal: – spacial: rainfall atlas online will tell you using rainfall stations in the area- physical: soils, typography, eroded areas, condition- forage growth: intensity, frequency & duration, timing. – roots: if you take off more than 50%, then roots stop growing and you lose some. – give Grass a couple (2-4)weeks to rest. 
* get a grazing stick to determine height it has marks on it for when to move to another paddock. 
Stocking- continuous set: year long same place- continuous variable: area set aside for special needs *  set rotational: each area changed every week with 4 weeks to recover. Set areas- variable rotational: 
Grazing:- first-lane: high need animals graze first – creep: offspring graze and fence lets them thru to the good stuff- strip: move fences on regular rotation.  Labor intensive!- frontal: strip grazing with only front 
Stocking Rate: unit of animal per unit area per season. 
Stock density: units of animal per unit area per unit time. 
Mob grazing: moving cows every 4 hours: high stock density. Stressful for land, and people but produces high regrowth and can rehabilitate trashes land
Carrying capacity: number of animals a pasture can handle without damaging the resource base. Determined over the long term
Forage animal balance: AU*intake rate*time=demandForage produced (lbs/acre)*grazable area*grazing efficiency=supply (lbs or AUD/AUM/AUY)

Fences: – Compression member – linger is better- Brace wire from base of the anchor post to the compression member high side- tension wire with stretcher and the come along after rolling it all the way out. – attach twists – over 20degree need a post and h braces- every 10 posts use a wooden post (rule if thumb) and make it more strong- anchor post tie off at the bottom. Brace post at the top pulling the stretcher from the compression post toward the anchor post- strand of barb wire at the bottom to keep pigs out- top wire for more strength. Barbed wire good but standard wire ok. – class 3 galvanized minimum (not 1 or 2)- should last 20 years- kiawe is king for – wire out in the side facing your animals- can go 14’ on t-posts. – animal health or Miranda’s for fencing supplies- trailer mat if trying to fence across a river/gulch- labor is at least as much as the parts- $2/foot parts- neighbors usually split the cost and if one wants a more expensive 

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Compost

Beginning Farmer and Ranchers Development Program
Kohala Center
NOTES from class on May 25, 2019 by Jim Crum
Presentations by Norman Arancon (for registered Students only):
– Composting
– Principals of Vermicomposting
– Vermicomposting and Teas
– 2016 Vermicompost Water Extracts

Dr. Norman Arancon
UH Hilo
Been there 10 years and Ohio before that for 11 years

Vermicomposting vs composting
– $12/ pound worms are $180 here
– teaching as a course at UH but only 10 people so may be cut next year- 
Composting
– been around forever
– bin or on the ground
– Biological process

Aerobatic (requires oxygen) is what is focused on vs anaerobic (no oxygen and creates methane
– biogas and all that is left is sludge)
– biological process that requires turning to make sure every particle in it is oxygenated- controlled condition:
— nutrient balance of carbon (brown) to nitrogen (green). Critical!
— moisture content
— temperature is a byproduct of aerobic microbe activity. Not over 160degrees or they catch fire. 110-140 is normal and required by EPA for 72 hours to kill human pathogens
— air
Takes 6 weeks (minimum) to complete if you have all the right elements- turn it once a week
– air pumped into it can work

Don’t put it straight on the ground because byproducts can be viruses and such that leech into the ground. Weed mat is ok for backyard setups
If commercial, you are responsible for a salmonella, ecoli, helminth, enteric viruses, etc. outbreak and you are liable

C:N is preferred 25-30:1 Moisture is 50-60%Oxygen >6% but 16-18.5%
*apply 2 or more weeks before harvest
Whatever stream you have, work with it and try not to bring in things outside the farm
Best manure additives for Nitrogen C:N
– horse and swine is 30:1
– cattle (if from a slurry) and turkey grass clipping 19:1 but collect from
– Carbon C:N
– newsprint is 398-852:1. Soak in water and then shred it
– cardboard 563:1- sawdust and wood chips: 442:1- bark 109-130:1
– People are being composted and is more valuable than ash as fertilizer.
– Sewage is 16:1
– Melorganite
– humanure (night soil) and pasteurized and therefore the benefits of compost is gone.

Nearly all are pasteurized and especially if out of state. If pasteurized, then of little value so make your own or get local. (Sunshine hardware in Hawi has some, Hilo transfer station)
You can compost anything as long as it is got enough and covered to keep critters out. 
Moisture required to heat up. 50% feels moist but not damp
C1V1 = C2V2

Stop compost pile when it is 5’x5’x5’ and. Turn it every week for 6 weeks. 
40# bag is worth $527 pounds out of 100 pounds
Build a 4x4x4 on palettes on tarpKeep it covered until it reaches that height, then start turning it. 
Need to chop it up 1-2 inches max and covered
Precomposting (140 degrees for 72 hours of manure and to get rid of weedseeds and meet EPA requirements for manure
End products:- fertilizer (if not pasteurized)- soil conditioner- land reclamation- livestock bedding- nursery container media- disease control
Holland is best for composting and use it for reclamation
Ohio State has the gurus for composting and vermicomposting

In a teaspoon of soil have a million microorganisms.  There are a few that are bad but overwhelmed by the good
Nematodes: microscopic worms that cause a cancerous response and disfigure carrots. Compost can control nematodes. – 4 types, only one is parasitic so 
Compost tea: magnify it’s effect with a small amount and make it 10:1. – time consuming- immediate effect- less long-lasting effect compared to soil so may need to be applied weekly- “tea time in the tropics” (Ted Radovich) is free online- make in a bucket for a week without aeration, or 24 hours with aeration 
Screen compost at end of process to get the best kind
2”x 2” screening typically, but 1”x 1” is better quality 
Benefits to plants- nutrient release- produce hormones- reduce disease and parasites- increases biological activity and diversity- improve tilth and structure of soil 

*“Vermiculture Technology” book by Clive Edwards and Norman Arancon is expensive but worth a look

“I buy worms from 12 year old kid on island.” 
Typical soil
– 25% Air
– 25% water
– 5% organic matter (10% microorganisms)

Earthworms
– used to predict earthquakes when they come to the surface because of vibrations.
– have multiple hearts
– formaldehyde 100mil per gallon can be put on the soil because they are sensitive to soil
– cut them beyond 8 segments and they will live. Cut them exactly in 1/2 and they will die
– produce cocoons about the size of a mung bean. Greenish brown
– work with other microorganisms in 4-6 weeks to create soil. 
Lava takes 400 years to turn into soil. 
Types- red wrigglers with yellow tails. Not good for bait because of secretions- Indian blues have a purple sheen.  Very prolific. Highly social and leave the bin. – tenisteits. 
Mites are in the habitat and will attack the 
Waste for worms (worst to best)- chicken, turkey, duck, horse (if not dewormed), cattle, pig, rabbit- brewery, potato, paper, sewage (night soil), restaurant, food market, yard waste
Precomposte before vermicomposting – 60-75 degrees- no more than a couple inches or material on top- automated continuous flow reactors
Vermiculture  toiletshttp://www.vermicompostingtoilets.net/
To use animal feces, dissolve in water to break it down. 
“How Vermicompost affects plants” UHHilo by 
Worm Tea- ACT: aerated- NCT: do not or minimal disturbing- Home Brewer: 5 gallon bucket with a mesh bag (nylon paint strainer) over the top. Stirred occasionally to aerate- helps dramatically with germination if soaked for 1 hour but only 1-5% VC Tea. Too concentrated can become toxic- 5% to 10% Vermicompost tea is the sweet spot. 
Biochar- empty cells when they are initially deposited- absorbs everything around it as an empty cell so grabs everything. Only has value once it is full and wants to give back- add it to your composite to have it absorb there. – it’s a home to microbes and nutrients
4788 gate code
20×100 = 500(x)+15(y)
Podcast- farmer to farmer- Ted radio hour- my favorite murder- invisibilia- this American life- the illusionist- song exploder

Ag census is how we get details of crop volume and weight per acre. Utilized production. Total harvested column is what comes out net. Divide acres by pounds. Multiply by nitrogen to know how much is needed to add per acre to add enough. Assume 100 trees per acre. 
CTAHR has stats on recommended plant nutrients sufficiency values. 

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Permaculture

Practical Agriculture Workshops
Hāmākua Harvest
NOTES from April 5, 2019 by Jim Crum

Tracy Matfin is an educator turned gardener, mother, permaculture instructor and lover of life. She is a founding member of La’akea Community (permaculture-hawaii.com) where she has been living and experimenting with sustainability for more than ten years.
Site Specific Crop Production On island 17 years Commune for 12 years Tracy@permaculture-hawaii.com
Every day is a learning experience. 

Permaculture principal- Mollison coined the phrase and it means permanent agriculture- developing sustainable systems – connection- elements: climate, desires, landforms, water supply, infrastructure, microclimates (you can create your own) – zones: where is the human energy and how does it move on the land. What does that system need? Zone 1 is chicken feed with starter plants with herbs so you can grab them all at once. Things in zone 2 are things that need less attention and don’t need daily attention. like pineapple and zone 3 are things that need even less attention like bees and orchard trees. Zone 4 would be timber. – Step 1 is observations: the 5 senses and “the vibe”, patterns, species, zones, sectors (how energy and matter move thru the site like water, sun, pigs)- block unwanted energy or invite it in. Banana berm (anywhere it’s wet and soggy), windbreak, bamboo hedge, etc. – step 2 is interpret: what pleases and doesn’t please, use intuition, thoughts, – step 3 is vision/dream: no constraints. What is wanted now. In the future. “In respectful harmony with the ‘aina, I grow a combination of starches (taro and sweet potato), fruits (oranges, lemons, limes, figs, banana, papaya, avocado), and vegetables (peppers, onions, lettuce, tomatoes, cabbage), and perhaps a few happy animals (chickens and goats) in sufficient quantities to sustain 2 people for the next 15 years, and l my children and their families’ needs in the future if they want to be there.”- step 4 applies analysis and investigation to know how to achieve the goals. – every element supports many functions. Nitrogen fixing (gliricidia, pidgeon pea, pirrenial peanut, clovers) that you can chop and drop.- Hügelkultur: sticks at the base with soil on top of that – it’s a cycle. Learn by trial and error and what you like, then make change based upon what works. Robinziroli@gmail.com
In Hawaii:Annual differences- 11-13 hours- 6 degrees temp difference during the day- 8-20 degrees difference at nights- so altitude acts as if it were 
Permicopia books (some of the original books)

**banana in wet spots **gonna need a greenhouse to limit the rainl eaching nutrients from the soil. ** grow indigenous micro organisms (Korean natural farming) to use in plant health

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Sticky

Soils of the Big Island

Beginning Farmer and Ranchers Development Program
Kohala Center
with Jonathan Deenik
NOTES from class on December 1, 2018 by Jim Crum
Presentation by Jonathan Deenik (for registered Students only) here

Depo = dirt
Āina = that which feeds
Kahana Mahi Ai -farmer
“Science is useless if not used to help people and the land”
Gurol Uehar – clay and Hawaiian soils pioneer

Diversity
– 45% mineral — sand— silt— clay (type is critical to fertility)- 5% organic matter — more OM is more fertile
– 25% air
– 25% water- iron oxide is red and usually low fertility. Ferrihydrate is more fertile than – darker are more fertile. 

Formation
– parent material (rock – lava – basalt, or limestone from cora)
– age (krono sequence makes it a great place to study effect)
– climate (water is the key weathering agent.)
– biota (plants)- topography (drainage)

Kohala Climosequence – uala fields – most fertile fields in Hawaii – 26 sq miles- look at impact of rainfall on fertility – 300,000 year ago lava flows- 10”/year aridisols/desert- 40”/year great for growing- 150”/year – 1500mm is like for leaching or not 

Processes
– additions (organic matter, tropospheric dust carried from )- transformations (rock to clay, living tissue to humus)- translocations – losses- taxonomy—  low lands, sodium and toxic but pockets of — middle lands, (humus) near neutral — high lands (ferrihydritic hydrudands) acid and infertile and – microbes are the first items to grow in new lava
Soil surveys of the Hawaiian Islands
– USDA soil conservation service 1960s remapped in the 1990s on the Big Island

Organic matter
– high solvable potassium, calcium, magnesium = fertile- fertility stays at a good levels until over 1500mm if rain per year. Quick drop off. Leeches off to the ocean
– the higher the negative charge, the more fertile.
– negative charge is low with no rain or high rain. Sweet spot is >500mm <1500mm/yr
– organic matter can overcome any infertility.
– waimea (leeward side area) is most fertile because all the best elements come together- 12 soils types globally— mollisols: grasslands and biota is the driver— oxisols: tropical rainforest high weathering and acidity— vertisols: dry leeward coasts that shrink and grow with rain— Andisols: form from volcanic ash. Higher rain is acid and leached— histosols: dense forest but just rock and organic matter. Young
– minerals: sand, silt and clay-maintain the organic matter, and maintain fertility- allophone: first to develop on volcanic soils, tubular and high surface area. 1g could have 1000 sq. meters of surface area. have to add phosphorus via manure- 17% carbon in surface soils and 5% lower. 
– organisms/microorganisms cause decomposition to humus
– improves soil by: causes aggregate stability (fluffy and lights) aerates to increase water infiltration and retention and protects from erosion
– chemical properties: a sink for nutrients retains and then supplies nitrogen, calcium, potassium, detoxifies aluminum and buffers pH change. 
– arsenic is not bio available because t binds with clay, but have to avoid breathing in the dust- aluminum issues can be addressed using manure
– Cornell soil tests don’t work for Hawaii
– microbial diversity is key to nutrient exchange
– mycorrhiza: symbiosis between his fungus getting energy and root systems getting nutrients like (necessary but scarce) phosphate to fed the plant. 
– biological nitrogen fixation: rhizobium and legumes – break the bond and create amino acids- decomposition: physical and chemical breakdown to convert from organic to inorganic (needed by plants). Carbon rich materials break down much more slowly. CtoN ratio lower than 25-30 means things will break down quickly- high carbon (wood, coconut, sawdust, dried leaves) will initially take Nitrogen from plants

Acidity/alkalinity
– lower it is more acid higher is more alkaline
– stays at a good level until over 1500mm of rain per year. Quick drop off. Soluble aluminum increases and increases acidity
– Hamakua is infertile ash soils 
– tea, blueberries, hydrangea, pineapple are acid tolerant
– solubility is dependent on pH.
– At low pH phosphate will bind with the clay surface and aluminum instead of the plant- high pH, phosphorus will react with calcium and be insoluble. Zinc bonds as well
– ideal pH is 6-7: optimizations solubility for essential nutrients
– too high? Elemental sulphur
– biochar can be used but releases lots of nitrous oxide. Instead, bio digester to make methane and
– liming: crushes corral from Kawaihae but not a great source and use 3-4tines. Has to be tilled in
– stay above pH 5.5 to address aluminum.
– soil sample test month after testing. Test every year. 

Management
– high humidity impacts the plants and adds fungus- organic matter is key: concentrated in the surface layer, comes from decaying plants, determines performance – sawdust takes nutrients (nitrogen) away from plant. Use it only as a mulch or in compost – Nitrate: NO3, is the plant available nitrogen and a great source of this is urine when mixed 1/10 water as fertilizer. 4 rights- source- Rate- Time place 
BEI office gets it to Peter Bunn, crop solutions. 

* microbes always win*
Kukui nuts for oil and ground as fertilizer
fish meal made in Oahu at Campbell industrial park
azola is used as a nitrogen fixer as well- 

Hawai’i soil atlas – find out the name of your soil and what it’s  means. Interactive. Based on 1960s soil survey tho’
Polycrops
Pidgeon pea?
Sun hemp: green manure. At flowering, that’s when you mow it and cover it and then till it in as manure. Reduces parasitic nematodes (another way is to get clear plastic and cover it for a few months ). Modules on the roots should have plenty and are red inside. 
Glyricidia (madre de cacao): nitrogen fixer, grows fast, shade, cut back and it grows back fast. 
Perennial peanut: ground cover, nitrogen fixer.